Adolfo Lujan | Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Mass demonstration in Madrid on International Women's Day
Multitudinaria manifestación en Madrid en el día internacional de la mujer

Priority Areas

Supporting feminist, women’s rights and gender justice movements to thrive, to be a driving force in challenging systems of oppression, and to co-create feminist realities.

Advancing Universal Rights and Justice

Uprooting Fascisms and Fundamentalisms

Across the globe, feminist, women’s rights and gender justice defenders are challenging the agendas of fascist and fundamentalist actors. These oppressive forces target women, persons who are non-conforming in their gender identity, expression and/or sexual orientation, and other oppressed communities.


Discriminatory ideologies are undermining and co-opting our human rights systems and standards,  with the aim of making rights the preserve of only certain groups. In the face of this, the Advancing Universal Rights and Justice (AURJ) initiative promotes the universality of rights - the foundational principle that human rights belong to everyone, no matter who they are, without exception.

We create space for feminist, women’s rights and gender justice movements and allies to recognize, strategize and take collective action to counter the influence and impact of anti-rights actors. We also seek to advance women’s rights and feminist frameworks, norms and proposals, and to protect and promote the universality of rights.


Our actions

Through this initiative, we:

  • Build knowledge: We support feminist, women’s rights and gender justice movements by disseminating and popularizing knowledge and key messages about anti-rights actors, their strategies, and impact in the international human rights systems through AWID’s leadership role in the collaborative platform, the Observatory on the Universality of Rights (OURs)*.
  • Advance feminist agendas: We ally ourselves with partners in international human rights spaces including, the Human Rights Council, the Commission on Population and Development, the Commission on the Status of Women and the UN General Assembly.
  • Create and amplify alternatives: We engage with our members to ensure that international commitments, resolutions and norms reflect and are fed back into organizing in other spaces locally, nationally and regionally.
  • Mobilize solidarity action: We take action alongside women human rights defenders (WHRDs) including trans and intersex defenders and young feminists, working to challenge fundamentalisms and fascisms and call attention to situations of risk.  

 

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Intro to tweets snippet | AR

يتبيّن من هذه التويتات الفكاهة المقرونة بالإثارة والاهتياج الجنسيّ، التي تتّسم بها المقاربة النسوية لكتابة الرسائل ذات المضامين الجنسية، دون أن تُسقط عن نفسها الالتزام بالمساواة والعدالة.

É preciso responder a todas as perguntas de uma só vez ou posso responder quando quiser?

Se quiser guardar as suas respostas e voltar ao inquérito mais tarde, pode fazê-lo sempre que precisar.

Upasana Agarwal Snippet EN

Upasana Agarwal

Upasana is a non binary illustrator and artist based out of Kolkata, India. Their work explores identity and personal narratives by using a visual remnant or evidence of the contexts they work with. They are especially drawn to patterns which to them communicate complex truths about the past, present and future. When Upasana is not illustrating they organise and run a queer and trans community art centre in the city. 

Upasana’s Exhibition

قمت بتعبئة الاستطلاع لكنني غيرت رأيي وأريد سحب اجاباتي. ماذا أفعل؟

إن رغبتم/ن في سحب استطلاعكم/ن ومحيه لأي سبب كان، لديكم/ن الحق الكامل بالقيام بذلك. الرجاء التواصل معنا عن طريق هذا النموذج وكتابة "استطلاع المال" في عنوان رسالتكم/ن وسنقوم بسحب ومحي أجوبتكم/ن.

Snippet Caribbean Feminist Spaces_Fest (EN)

Caribbean Feminist Spaces, Creative Expressions & Spiritual Practices for Community Transformation

Tonya Haynes, CAISO
Angelique V. Nixon, CAISO

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Могу ли я связаться с кем-либо, если у меня возникнут вопросы?

Если у вас есть какие-либо вопросы или сомнения, пожалуйста, свяжитесь с нами через форму здесь, указав «Опрос «Где деньги?» (WITM Survey) в качестве заголовка вашего сообщения. или напишите нам по адресу witm@awid.org

Snippet - Join CSW69 Conversations Intro_EN

Join us through the #FreezeFascisms conversations!

As we navigate the global polycrisis, movements are tirelessly building power beyond traditional power structures. The wave of US presidential executive orders is intended to scare us, but no amount of fascist ideology can erase our existence and resistance.

We invite you to be a part of the solidarity-building campaign to expose and resist fascist forces undermining feminist and gender justice movements in your contexts!

  • Spark conversations in a brave space: Share stories of struggles and resistance to fascisms in your contexts on the AWID Community Platform. Not a member yet? Join here
  • Support movements that have been impacted: Amplify fundraisers, resourcing opportunities, mutual aid efforts using the #FreezeFascisms (we’re still on X, Instagram, LinkedIN, and we’re also on Bluesky)
  • Organize around alternatives: We’ve been building our community of practice on feminist economic alternatives & autonomous resourcing. Sign up to be part of it here.

Snippet - CSW69 - Other events - EN

Find AWID staff at these partners' events!

Snippet - WCFM type of funder - EN

Type of funder:

Filter your search by funders from different sectors i.e., philanthropic foundations, multilateral funders, women’s and feminist funds

Annual Report 2009

3 women sitting on a roundtable with dmall thumbnails of women's faces on top and text that reads, "AWID ANNUAL REPORT 2009"

Our 2009 Annual Report includes highlights of another busy year of action and reflection at AWID as we implement our commitment to boldly, creatively and effectively contribute to the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality worldwide.

In the report you can find out about our programmatic achievements, membership, finances, what to watch out for in 2010, as well as information about our Board and Staff.

Download PDF

Snippet2 - WCFM type of funding- EN

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Type of funding:

Be it core funding, programmes & projects or rapid response/ emergency grants.

Marianne Mesfin Asfaw

Biography

Marianne Mesfin Asfaw is a Pan-African feminist who is dedicated to social justice and building community. She has a BA in Gender Studies and International Relations from the University of British Columbia (UBC), and an MA in Gender Studies and Law from SOAS University of London. She has previously worked in academic administration and international student support, and has worked as a researcher and facilitator in feminist and non-profit spaces. She has also worked and volunteered at non-governmental organizations including Plan International in administrative roles. Prior to taking up her current role she worked in logistics and administrative support at AWID. She is from Ethiopia, was raised in Rwanda and is currently based in Tkaronto/Toronto, Canada. She enjoys reading, traveling and spending time with her family and friends. In the warmer months she can be found strolling around familiar neighborhoods in search of obscure cafés and bookstores to wander into.

Position
Coordinator, Building Feminist Economies
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Snippet - COP30 - Links

$2.7 trillion for the military. $300 billion for climate justice. We're here to flip the script.

Get started with these resources.

COP30 Political Education Toolbox Play the Climate Justice Organizing Deckgame

Read the Feminist Economic Alternatives Brief Download the Climate Justice Zine

Veena Singh

Biography

Veena Singh is a Fiji Islander, feminist, and woman of colour. Born and raised in a small rural town in Fiji, she draws strength from her rich mixed heritage (her mother is an Indigenous Fijian woman and her father is Fijian of Indian descent). Veena’s identity and lived experiences deeply inform her commitment to justice, equity, and inclusion.  With over two decades of experience in human rights, gender equality, community development, and social inclusion, Veena is a passionate advocate for shifting power to create transformative change and for building an “economy of kindness”. Her work spans diverse areas including community development; women, peace and security; social policy; human rights; and policy advocacy.

Veena is deeply committed to advancing inclusion, peace and justice, sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR), climate justice, transitional justice, and human rights. She brings a wealth of experience working across grassroots networks, international organizations, and government institutions, always centering community and locally led approaches and feminist principles.

Outside of her ‘office life’, Veena is an environmental advocate, mental health champion, and writer. She is a mum to 11 cats, a saree wearer, and a lover of snail-mails and postcards. A thoughtful observer of feminist movements in Fiji and the Pacific, Veena is on a personal journey to “decolonise the mind and the self through radical self-reflection.” Above all, she is driven by a desire and dream to produce relatable, resonant writing that connects with the Pacific diaspora and amplifies voices from the margins.

Position
Co-President
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Snippet - COP30 - Political Education Toolbox - EN

📚 Political Education Toolbox

Expose corporate capture. Understand false solutions. Build alternatives. Everything you need to run your own "Whose COP Is It?" campaign.

Access Toolbox #1 

Access Toolbox #2

Alejandra Morena

Biography

Alejandra is passionate about women’s rights and gender justice. She dreams of creating a world that centers care – for people and nature. As a feminist human rights expert, she’s worked at the intersections of gender, climate, social and economic justice at various international organizations. Her areas of expertise include knowledge building and co-creation, research, facilitation, and advocacy. She holds a MA in Human Rights from the University of Essex and has authored and co-developed many publications, including the article “Enraged: Women and Nature”. The campaign Feminist Activism Without Fear draws on interviews and research carried out by Alejandra. 

Originally from Argentina, she has lived and worked in several countries in Europe and Latin America over the past two decades. Alejandra loves photography, the sea, baking with her daughter, and enjoying food from around the world. As a mother, she aims to be a cycle breaker. Alejandra draws energy and inspiration from the amazing women in her life, who are spread in many corners of the world.

Position
Research & Advocacy Lead, Resourcing Feminist Movements
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Memory as Resistance: A Tribute to WHRDs no longer with us

AWID’s Tribute is an art exhibition honouring feminists, women’s rights and social justice activists from around the world who are no longer with us. 


In 2020, we are taking a turn

This year’s tribute tells stories and shares narratives about those who co-created feminist realities, have offered visions of alternatives to systems and actors that oppress us, and have proposed new ways of organising, mobilising, fighting, working, living, and learning.

49 new portraits of feminists and Women Human Rights Defenders (WHRDs) are added to the gallery. While many of those we honour have passed away due to old age or illness, too many have been killed as a result of their work and who they are.

This increasing violence (by states, corporations, organized crime, unknown gunmen...) is not only aimed at individual activists but at our joint work and feminist realities.

The stories of activists we honour keep their legacy alive and carry their inspiration forward into our movements’ future work.

Visit the online exhibit

The portraits of the 2020 edition are designed by award winning illustrator and animator, Louisa Bertman

AWID would like to thank the families and organizations who shared their personal stories and contributed to this memorial. We join them in continuing the remarkable work of these activists and WHRDs and forging efforts to ensure justice is achieved in cases that remain in impunity.

“They tried to bury us. They didn’t know we were seeds.” - Mexican Proverb 


The Tribute was first launched in 2012

It took shape with a physical exhibit of portraits and biographies of feminists and activists who passed away at AWID’s 12th International Forum, in Turkey. It now lives as an online gallery, updated every year.

To date, 467 feminists and WHRDs are featured.

Visit the online exhibit

Related Content

Vie Féminine et Handicap : lutter contre les discriminations au Sénégal

Vie Féminine et Handicap : lutter contre les discriminations au Sénégal

L’association Vie Féminine et Handicap est devenue membre de l’AWID en 2008 « pour mieux défendre nos idées, mieux sensibiliser sur les discriminations dont les femmes en situation de handicap sont victimes en Afrique et offrir une meilleure visibilité de nos actions », confie la Présidente de l’association, Ndoya Kane. 


Prendre en compte les besoins spécifiques des femmes en situation de handicap 

Créée en 2008, Vie Féminine et Handicap se donne pour mission de lutter contre la pauvreté des femmes en situation de handicap au Sénégal et de façon plus globale sur tout le continent africain. Dans le cadre d’une vision où le handicap ne devrait pas constituer un frein à la dignité et au bien-être des femmes, l’association se donne pour objectifs principaux de lutter contre la pauvreté, les Infections Sexuellement Transmissibles et le Sida chez les femmes en situation de handicap, tout en renforçant leur accès aux nouvelles technologies de l’information. 

Vie Féminine et Handicap a été créée pour que les problématiques des femmes handicapées soient gérées à partir d’une perspective qui prenne en compte leurs besoins spécifiques, liés à la fois à leurs statuts de femme et de personne handicapée, et pour que leur situation économique évolue de façon positive et que la société soit mieux sensibilisée aux questions du handicap sans préjugés négatifs. 
Constituée d’une cinquantaine de membres et agissant principalement sur les départements de Pikine et de Guédiawaye dans la région de Dakar, Vie Féminine et Handicap entreprend des activités de sensibilisation et de formation des femmes en situation de handicap ainsi que de plaidoyer envers les autorités, qui portent à la fois sur la question de l’exercice des droits humains des femmes handicapées, leur pouvoir économique et leur santé sexuelle et reproductive.  « Nous organisons des activités de sensibilisation sur le handicap dans les quartiers en y invitant les autorités communales, les jeunes et les personnes « valides » car le handicap est entouré de beaucoup de préjugés négatifs dans la culture sénégalaise et africaine en général. Nous participons aussi à des conférences aux niveaux africain et international pour débattre de la situation des femmes handicapées en Afrique et dans le monde pour une meilleure harmonisation de nos stratégies », souligne Ndoya Kane.

« Sans faire preuve de solidarité, sans comprendre que notre combat n’est pas mené pour défendre les intérêts d’une seule organisation de personnes handicapées, mais de tou-te-s, nous n’obtiendrons jamais de résultats. Toutes les organisations de personnes handicapées doivent comprendre que le combat que nous menons est plus important que les rivalités internes et que nous devons avancer ensemble pour réussir à obtenir des résultats durables », expliquait Ndoya Kane en 2010 dans un rapport de l'AWID.

Mutualisation des ressources et autofinancement des membres

L’association a mis en place depuis février 2010 une caisse d’autofinancement (CAF), qui consiste à mettre en commun les cotisations des membres pour permettre à chacune de disposer de financements de petits projets personnels et d’initier des activités génératrices de revenus pour ses membres, axées notamment autour du petit commerce. L’idée de créer cette CAF est née de la volonté des membres elles-mêmes, qui constituent un groupe très précaire disposant de faibles ressources économiques et dont l’accès aux crédits formels s’avère par conséquent impossible.

La CAF a par exemple permis à Marétou Diop, une habitante de Guédiawaye, d’ouvrir une boutique dans le marché de son quartier pour y vendre des denrées alimentaires. « Maintenant, les autres femmes viennent adhérer à notre Caisse d’Autofinancement pour trouver du crédit et financer leurs activités », souligne Ndoya Kane. 

« Les discussions de groupe sont d’autant plus importantes qu’elles permettent de nous retrouver entre femmes handicapées et renforcent la confiance chez certaines pour parler de leur condition de femme en toute aisance. Nous choisissons ensemble quel problème existe et essayons d’avoir recours à des spécialistes pour nous entretenir sur la question », raconte Ndoya Kane.

Source
AWID

Feminine Life and Disability: Fighting against the discrimination in Senegal

Feminine Life and Disability: Fighting against the discrimination in Senegal

The organization Vie Féminine et Handicap (Feminine Life and Disability) became an AWID member in 2008 “to better defend our ideas, to better promote awareness of the discrimination faced by women living with disability in Africa, and to increase visibility of our work,” says President of the organization, Ndoya Kane. 


Considering the specific needs of women living with disability

Launched in 2008, the mission of Vie Féminine et Handicap is to fight against poverty among women living with disability in Senegal and globally, but especially across the African continent. With a vision where disability is no longer a barrier to a woman’s dignity or well-being, the main objectives of the organization are to combat poverty, sexually transmitted infections, and AIDS among women living with disability, while strengthening their access to new information technologies.    

Vie Féminine et Handicap was created to address the issues of disabled women from a perspective that considers their specific needs, related to both their status as a woman and as a person living with a disability – and to ensure that their economic situation evolves in a positive way and to better sensitize society to disability issues without the negative prejudice. 

Comprised of some fifteen members and working mainly across the Pikine and Guédiawaye departments in the Dakar region, the work of Vie Féminine et Handicap includes awareness raising and training for women living with disability, as well as advocacy with decision-makers around the human rights of women living with disability, their economic empowerment, and their sexual and reproductive health. “We do awareness raising on the issue of disability in neighbourhoods by inviting community authorities, youth and ‘able-bodied’ people, because disability is surrounded by a lot of negative prejudice in the Senegalese and African context in general. We also participate in conferences at the African and International level to discuss the situation of disabled women in Africa and around the world to better align our strategies,” highlights Kane. 

 “Without solidarity, without an understanding that the fight that we lead is not done in the interest of a sole disabled people’s organization, but in the interest of all, we will never achieve any results. Each disabled people’s organization to understand that the fight that we lead outweighs the competition and that we have to go forward together to succeed in getting long lasting results,” explained Ndoya Kane in 2010, in a repport produced by AWID

Pooling resources and the self-financing of members

Since February 2010, the organization has established a self-financing fund, which consists of pooling member contributions to allow each one to finance small personal projects and to initiate income-generating activities for its members, mainly focused on small business. The idea to create the fund originated from our members themselves, a vulnerable group with limited economic resources and for which access to credit is nearly impossible.

The Fund for example allowed Marétou Diop, a resident of Guédiawaye, to open a shop in her neighbourhood market and sell foodstuffs. “Now the other women are joining our self-financing fund to receive credit and finance their activities,” highlights Ndoya Kane.  

“Group discussions are even more important as they give us the opportunity to meet among women living with disability and build confidence in some to comfortably talk about the issues they face as women. Together we decide which challenges exist and try to engage specialists in addressing the issue,” says Kane.    

Source
AWID

Género y discapacidad: la lucha contra la discriminación en Senegal

Género y discapacidad: la lucha contra la discriminación en Senegal

La organización Vie Féminine et Handicap [vida femenina y discapacidad] se afilió a AWID en el año 2008. La Presidenta de la organización, Ndoye Kane, afirma que esto se hizo  « con el fin de defender mejor nuestras ideas, mejorar la concientización  sobre la discriminación experimentada por las mujeres que viven con discapacidad en África y para dar mayor visibilidad a nuestro trabajo». 


Tener en cuenta las necesidades específicas de las mujeres que viven con discapacidad

Vie Féminine et Handicap comenzó a operar en 2008 y su misión es luchar contra la pobreza que sufren las mujeres que viven con discapacidad en Senegal y en todo el mundo –aunque   especialmente en el continente africano. En su visión, la discapacidad dejar de ser una barrera para la dignidad o el bienestar de las mujeres. Los principales objetivos de la organización son la lucha contra la pobreza, las infecciones de transmisión sexual y el sida entre las mujeres que viven con diversidad funcional, fortaleciendo su acceso a las nuevas tecnologías de la información.

Vie Féminine et Handicap se creó para abordar cuestiones relevantes a las  mujeres con diversidad funcional — desde una perspectiva que toma en cuenta sus necesidades específicas como mujeres y personas que viven con una discapacidad —;   para garantizar que su situación económica evoluciona de manera positiva;  y para mejorar la sensibilidad social a temas relacionados con la discapacidad, eliminando los prejuicios negativos.

La organización cuenta con 15 integrantes y trabaja, principalmente,  en los departamentos de Pikine y Guédiawaye de la región de Dakar. Su tarea incluye crear conciencia y capacitar a mujeres que viven con diversidad funcional;  y también hacer incidencia con tomadores de decisión por los derechos humanos de las mujeres que viven con discapacidad, su empoderamiento económico y su salud sexual y reproductiva. «Creamos conciencia sobre el tema de la diversidad funcional en las comunidades, invitando a las autoridades, a la juventud y a las personas sin discapacidades, porque en Senegal y en el contexto africano hay, por lo general, muchos prejuicios negativos en torno a las capacidades diferentes. También participamos en conferencias regionales e internacionales para hablar de la situación de las mujeres discapacitadas en África y en el mundo; y para alinear mejor nuestras estrategias», subraya Kane.

«Sin solidaridad, sin una comprensión de que la lucha que nosotras lideramos no es para una sola organización de personas discapacitadas, sino para todas, nunca lograremos ningún resultado. Cada organización de personas con diversidad funcional debe comprender que la lucha que estamos librando es más importante que la competencia y que debemos avanzar juntas para seguir obteniendo resultados duraderos.», explicó Ndoya Kane,  en el 2010 en un informe de AWID.

Recursos combinados y el financiamiento autónomo de la membresía

En febrero de 2010, la organización creó un fondo de autofinanciamiento,  que combina los aportes de su membresía para que cada integrante financie pequeños proyectos personales y para iniciar actividades de generación de ingresos, particularmente bajo la forma de pequeños negocios. La idea de crear este fondo surgió de la propia membresía –un  grupo vulnerable con recursos económicos limitados y para  el que resulta casi imposible acceder al crédito.

Un ejemplo de este trabajo es la historia de Marétou Dio, quien vive en Guédiawaye: el fondo le permitió instalar un puesto en el mercado de su comunidad y vender productos alimenticios. «Ahora hay mujeres que se están sumando a nuestro fondo autofinanciado para obtener crédito y costear sus actividades», indica Ndoya Kane.

«Las conversaciones grupales son todavía más importantes porque  abren la oportunidad de reunirnos con otras mujeres que viven con discapacidad y  generar relaciones de confianza para hablar cómodamente sobre los problemas que nosotras enfrentamos. Decidimos colectivamente cuáles son los desafíos que afrontamos e intentamos traer especialistas para abordarlos», explica Kane.

Source
AWID

Pour les femmes et les filles victimes de violences de guerre en RDC

Pour les femmes et les filles victimes de violences de guerre en RDC

L’association Initiatives des Femmes en Situations Difficiles pour le Développement Intégré (IFESIDI) est devenue membre de l’AWID en 2012, considérant cette dernière comme « un réseau à travers lequel l’IFESIDI pourrait bénéficier de beaucoup d’expériences dans le cadre de promotion et de protection des droits des femmes. »


« Ensemble dans la lutte pour les droits des femmes et des filles ! »

Depuis plus de vingt ans, les guerres frappant l’Est de la République démocratique du Congo (RDC) sont à l’origine de violations massives de droits humains – notamment ceux des femmes, des filles et des enfants – incluant des viols et d’autres formes de violences faites aux femmes et aux filles. La situation précaire des femmes et des filles se trouve exacerbée par l’appropriation de leurs ressources, leur paupérisation conséquente ainsi que par leur mise en situation de vulnérabilité liée aux déplacements, suite aux attaques dans leur village. Face à cette réalité, IFEDISI s’est créée en 2002 pour améliorer les conditions sociales des femmes et des filles victimes de violences liées aux guerres, notamment de celles qui vivent en milieu rural, ainsi que pour promouvoir et protéger leurs droits. Cette association non confessionnelle et à but non lucratif est composée de 35 membres et ses activités couvrent au moins toute la province du Sud Kivu à l’Est de la RDC.  Porteuse du slogan « Ensemble dans la lutte pour les droits des femmes et des filles ! »,  IFEDISI souhaite que les femmes et les filles congolaises puissent vivre un jour dans la dignité.

Renforcement des capacités économiques et éducatives des femmes victimes de guerre

En plus de ses activités d’écoute des femmes et des filles victimes de violences dans divers milieux – notamment domestique, scolaire et professionnel –, l’association mène actuellement un programme de renforcement des capacités économiques et éducatives des femmes victimes de guerre. Ce programme comprend des activités d’apprentissage de métiers, liés entre autres à la savonnerie artisanale, la coupe de tissu et la couture.

L’une des bénéficiaires du programme raconte : « Avant d’être  invitée par l’IFESIDI et d’être formée, je transportais de lourds sacs de sable pour les constructeurs de bâtiments dans la ville de Bukavu et faisais des vas-et-viens avec ces sacs sur mon dos à longueur de journée.  Femme déplacée que je suis dans cette ville, sans ressources financières, j’étais sans aucun espoir de pouvoir continuer à vivre et personne ne me regardait quand je passais… Mais aujourd’hui, grâce à l’IFESIDI, je peux parler, je peux passer et les gens sauront que c’est  « mama » Ponga Musema qui passe ! »

Mobilisée dans le cadre des 16 jours d’activisme 

Dans le cadre de la Campagne des 16 jours d’activisme contre la violence basée sur le genre qui débute le 25 novembre et se termine le 10 décembre, l’IFESIDI organise cette année des activités de sensibilisation, conférence-débat, stratégies de plaidoyer, échanges et évaluation en présence des femmes et des filles ciblées par l’association.


Connectez-vous:

Source
IFESIDI

I am interested in working for women’s rights. How do I get started?

January 2015: 1st drafting session on the outcome document for the 3rd FfD Conference

The 1st drafting session on the outcome document for the 3rd Financing for Development Conference

  • In January 2015 a series of drafting sessions towards the final outcome document started at UN headquarters in New York.
  • Prior to the first drafting session the co-facilitators of the Addis conference preparatory process presented an elements paper for the so-called “zero-draft” outcome document, as the basis for the intergovernmental negotiations of the outcome document.
  • During the sessions, women’s rights organisations emphasised the need to treat the FfD and means of implementations (MOI) under the post 2015 processes separately, because FfD provides a unique opportunity for states to address the structural causes of inequality